Integrating Inuit Knowledge with Science in a Discussion of Narwhal Population Dynamics, Behavior, and Biology
By Martin T. Nweeia, Cornelius Nutarak (dec.), Charlie Inuarak, Pavia Nielsen, and Jayko Alooloo
Introduction
Inuit knowledge (hereafter – IK) collected during this study has enabled a more complex understanding of one of the key Arctic mammal species, narwhal (Monodon monoceros). It guided our joint studies of narwhal ecology, integrative and organismal biology, anatomy, behavior and the impacts on the population and its distribution during a period of climate change. Though IK is accepted as a methodology to assist scientific investigation, the breadth and depth of this knowledge and the Inuit experience with this revered marine animal have not been fully explored. By collecting video, audio and written recordings of IK, our study expanded the breadth of our common knowledge about (Fitzhugh and Nweeia, 2017).
IK is dependent on the careful consideration of many variables that the observer needs to integrate before passing an observation as oral knowledge, since often it relates to survival in the Arctic. What became evident in the documentation of oral knowledge about narwhal was the story of the relationship between the animal, its environment, and local holders of IK, Inuit hunters and elders. It became clear that the IK collected during our joint study in 2007–2015 would speak to changes observed in the local communities where narwhal are hunted, and in the High Arctic ecosystems which affected narwhal habitat.
Inuit Knowledge
There is inherent value to gathering IK in the Arctic (cf. Wenzel, 1991; Berkes, 1995; Broadbent, 1996; Krupnik and Jolly, 2002; Krupnik et al., 2005; Krupnik, 2009). Prior studies showed the significance of IK in understanding climate and environmental change (Nadasdy, 1999; Ford and Martinez, 2000), Arctic wildlife management (Huntington, 1992, 1998, 2005; Berkes, 1999; Dowlsey and Wenzel, 2008; Moore and Huntington, 2008; Huntington et al., 2011), and Arctic marine mammals (Bogoslovskaya, 2003; Noongwook et al., 2007; Clark et al., 2008). These studies illustrated the usefulness of combining results from science with IK. Several authors have used IK to describe the narwhal and its behavior (Finley et al., 1979; Silverman, 1979; Remnant and Thomas, 1992; Stewart et al., 1995; Gonzalez, 2001; Stewart, 2001; Lee, 2004; Lee and Wenzel, 2004; Westdal, 2008). Of prime importance are hunters’ observations of seasonal aggregations, migration and population and anatomic variations in narwhal in the Canadian Arctic and off Northwest Greenland (Dale 2009; Nweeia, et al., 2009; Rosing, 1999).
Narwhal Biology
The evolutionary biology of the narwhal—as it is known today—provides little insight into the unusual appearance of, and explanation for, the behavior of this medium-size cetacean and its extraordinary tusk (Winge, 1921; Kulu, 1972; Evans, 1989; Heide-Jørgensen and Reeves, 1993). From hypothesized artiodactyl origins (Gatesy et al., 1999) to the appearance of Monodon monoceros, there is limited precedence for the current form of the male spiraled tusk, and limited understanding of how or why it exists. The fossil record for Monodontidae dates to the Miocene era approximately 11-15 million years ago (Waddell et al., 2000). Isolated hybrid whales have been discovered with narwhal-like traits (Mitchell and Kemper, 1980; de Muizon, 1993; Heide-Jørgensen and Reeves, 1993), but none has provided an evolutionary link or insight into the existence of the narwhal tusk, other than describing it as an example of Darwinian sexual selection.
Scientific discussions of narwhal anatomy commonly focus on its legendary tusk, which has inspired legends, lore and the curiosity of explorers and scientists over centuries. Many theories have been proposed to explain its function, such as: the use as a weapon of aggression between males (Beddard, 1900; Lowe, 1906; Geist et al., 1960; Silverman and Dunbar, 1980; Brown, 1986); a secondary sexual characteristic in males (Scoresby, 1820; Hartwig, 1874; Mansfield et al., 1975; Silverman, 1979); an instrument for breaking the sea ice (Scoresby, 1820; Tomlin, 1957); a spear for hunting (Vibe, 1950; Harrison and King, 1965; Bruemmer, 1993; Ellis, 1980); a ritualistic appendage in establishing male hierarchy (Geist, 1966, 1971; Best, 1981; Pilleri, 1983); a breathing organ, a thermal regulator, a swimming rudder (Kingsley and Ramsay, 1988); a tool for digging (Freuchen, 1935; Pederson, 1960; Newman, 1971); an acoustic organ or sound probe (Best, 1981; Reeves and Mitchell, 1981), a conductor of sound (Best, 1972, 1981; Reeves and Mitchell, 1981), and more. Recent findings of sensory function rely on more conclusive experimental data (Nweeia, et al., 2009; 2014).
Many aspects of narwhal ecology, population size, migration, and behavior remain poorly known and are changing rapidly, particularly in relation to the rapidly warming Arctic environment. The current rise of annual temperature in the Arctic is twice the rate for the rest of the world (Corell, 2006; Larsen and Anisimov et al., 2014), and the sea ice is decreasing, with a projected summer ice-free Arctic by the year 2030 or shortly after. With such dramatic environmental change, observations from indigenous communities are invaluable to our understanding of its impact on Arctic fauna, and, particularly, on marine mammals, like narwhal (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen, 2005; Laidre et al., 2008). Studies combining the results of scientific and IK data can provide the best insights into the dynamic relationship of the narwhal to its changing ecosystem.
Materials and Methods
Collection of Injuit Knowledge
Methods used to collect indigenous knowledge data for this study varied and included interviews of Inuit experts using open, semi-directed and directed questions (cf. Huntington, 2000; Huntington et al., 2002). Inuit observations on the narwhal were recorded over eight years in several High Arctic communities in Nunavut, Canada and Western Greenland, primarily from elders and experienced hunters. The selection of interviewees for the study was carefully guided by community leaders and hunting organizations, such as the Hunters and Trappers Organization in Nunavut and Kalaallit Nunaanni Aalisartut Piniartullu Kattuffiat, or KNAPK, in Western Greenland. Approximately five elders and/or hunters were selected in each of the Nunavut communities of Arctic Bay, Pond Inlet, Clyde River, Broughton Island, Pangnirtung and Repulse Bay, and the Western Greenland communities of Saqqaq, Disco Bay, Hunde Ejland, Uummannaq and Qaanaaq. This made a total of 41 interviews used for this study split almost equally between Nunavut and Greenland. Most interviews were originally conducted in Inuktitut, Kalaallissut (Greenlandic) and Inuktun (the dialect of the Inughuit, Thule Inuit).
Translators and transcribers for the interviews were also recommended by community leaders based on experience with, and sensitivity to, both the Inuit or Inughuit dialects and English. All necessary permits and permission to gather traditional knowledge were obtained, including Nunavut Research Permits 0203205N-M and 0204306R-M, and release forms for each participant were completed permitting the use of this information for academic study. All interviews were translated and transcribed into both their indigenous languages and English, using the professional services of established community translators, government agencies, university language departments, and private translation services such as Innirvik Support Services Ltd. Digital libraries were created using the services of the Exchange for Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic (ELOKA), so that web access in multiple languages could be obtained by academic scholars, Inuit and Inughuit community members, and other interested viewers.
For the study, we created an 11-page questionnaire with open, semi-directive and directive questions about narwhal anatomy, tusk expression, migration, population, ecology, diet, distribution and behavior. An example of each form of question is provided below.
1. What is your most memorable experience of a narwhal?
rhu9o wcsmQ/cE/c2W5 eMlre5t9lt5V
Qilalukkat qernertat pillugit puigunaatsuunerpaaq eqqaamasat sunaava?
2. Do you notice that the tusk size relates to the size of the narwhal? Are there exceptions to this and if so please describe them?
s0pDh4ymF5 eMlZs2 xqiql5 gZq5 mo4ymhamzbV bwmN iEsN6ym? bwmwv/4izk5 bwmgX5 NlNwv8iD8NWs4V
Maluginiartarpiuk tuugaap angissusiata timaata angissusianut naleqqersuunne qarsinnaanersoq? tamanna ilaatigut allaassuseqartarpa? Allaassutsinik eqqaasaqarsinnaavit?
3. How often do narwhal get trapped and die in forming pack ice? Is there any pattern to the weather or events that make it difficult for the narwhal to escape under such conditions?
cftf5 gnMshaF5 s?li5 s0pDh4ymF5 m3Di4 gZc5gi4V gZcgcha? Xa9li4x7ml s?li5 x3Nl8i4V
Qanoq akulikitsigisumik qernertat imarnersamik sikusoorlutik toqusarpat? Silap qanoq innera aalajangersimasoq pissutaasarpa imaluunniit arlaatigut pisoqartarnera qernertanut qimaariarnissamik ajornakusoortitsisarpa?
We also asked questions about traditional hunting practices and the uses of harvested narwhal by the Inuit and Inughuit people. During the course of the interviews, some additional questions were included based on information provided in response to the open questions that led to new directive questions. An example of such a development came during an interview with Rasmus Avike, from Qaanaaq, when he described the molting of narwhal in the brackish inlets off Qaanaaq as a reason for narwhal migration into these areas during the spring and summer months. Since there were no scientific publications describing this process, and his answer had significant implications for narwhal biology, a new directive question was added to ask all future interviewees if they had ever experienced narwhal molting.
All questions were translated into two dialects of Inuktitut and Western Greenlandic. Most of the elders had no working knowledge of English, and it was felt that responses in a native dialect would permit a more free and inclusive response to the questions. Interviews were recorded in video using a 3CCD Panasonic PDX10 camera, and in wave sound files using an M Audio MicroTrack II digital stereo recorder. Eight interviews were recorded using some combination of audio recording or written answers. Five interview questionnaires were completed in written form when recording devices were unavailable. An extensive number of written notes from the late Cornelius Nutarak (1924–2007), an experienced elderly hunter from Pond Inletere also collected as part of this research. They represent a valuable source of IK that was used for our joint investigation and is being preserved for future research.
Several other elders and hunters from the community of Pond Inlet, Nunavut, Canada, and from Ummannaq and Hunde Ejland in West Greenland, also added valuable data on narwhal population, migration, ecology, behavior and signals of climate change. Charley and Enookie Nutarak from Pond Inlet presented their views on narwhal at the Smithsonian “Arctic Crashes” symposium in Washington, DC (January 2016). Jayko Alooloo and James Simonee shared their knowledge of narwhal ecology and behavior at the 18th Inuit Studies Conference in Washington DC (October 2012), Paniloo Sanguya and David Angnatsiak spoke about narwhal anatomy, biology and behavior at the 15th Inuit Studies Conference in Paris, France (2006); and Pavia Nielsen gave a talk on narwhal hunting quotas in relation to population and distribution in Western Greenland to the Inuit Circumpolar Council in Barrow (Utqiagvik), Alaska in 2006.
Narwhal Population and Migration
Inuit hunters and scientific researchers disagree about the current narwhal population status and the number of animals in each region. Therefore, the recent setting of hunting quotas based on scientific surveys are considered too low according to the opinion of hunters (Charley Inurak, January 2016). Data on narwhal migration have yielded differing but complementary results that aid the understanding of distinct sub-populations within the overall narwhal range, and how and when migrations occur, especially for Northeastern Canadian and Northwestern Greenland Arctic sub-populations.
Narwhal Population and Migration Observations from Inuit Knowledge
Population size and distribution of narwhals remained stable, sustainable and even growing according to Inuit hunters in many High Arctic communities. Attrition numbers are due to Inuit harvest, killer whale predation (Orcas orcinus), ice entrapments, and natural death. Birthing rates are steady, year-round, and are marked in the female reproductive tract, so that an experienced hunter can tell exactly how many calves have been birthed by each harvested female.
Local population groupings, according to hunters’ observations, are small, though different groups tend to revisit the same summering areas. During the spring inlet migration of narwhal, changes have been observed by Greenlandic hunters in response to global warming (Nadasdy, 1999; Ford and Martinez, 2000). For example, fall migration patterns have moved two weeks later, to late September in the Disko Bay area, according to four hunters from Uummannaaq and Disko Bay. During the collection of IK from Western Greenland, a composite map of narwhal migration was rendered using the IK from hunters in Hunde Ejland, and describing changing patterns affected by climate according to the hunters (Fig. 4).
Inuit hunters from Baffin Island and West Greenland are able to identify whales from different community areas, as they reportedly belong to populations specific to each region. Likewise, they are able to distinguish Greenlandic and Canadian narwhal by body size and behavior, as described in the anatomical section below. Distribution is directly linked to ice, food sources, and more recently it has been affected by global warming and seismic testing (Remnant and Thomas, 1992; Stewart et al., 1995). Global warming also has led to larger, more open and frequent water pathways for killer whales to prey on narwhal, which also affects their distribution in the areas more affected by ocean warming.
Likewise the occurrence of fast ice, “sikujjivik,” “has become more frequent and thus also the entrapments of narwhal, “sikujjaujut” (see below). These may be caused by changing and unpredictable weather, and in the case of the 2008 entrapment in Pond Inlet, directly related to disoriented whales affected by seismic testing from Clyde River, according to the observations of hunters, who recognized a specific population of narwhals more commonly seen off Clyde River. Hunters in all communities have strong feelings about commercial development that brings the promise of new wealth and prosperity through seismic testing. Their protests, under the leadership of Clyde River Mayor Jerry Natanine, were submitted to the Canadian Supreme Court that successfully delayed testing. Inuit across Nunavut (and elsewhere) feel strongly that seismic testing would greatly impact marine life that hunters and community members depend on for food and a traditional way of life. Their fight continues, as the delay only includes the 2016 shipping season.
Hunters from Pond Inlet, Canada have similar and mixed sentiments about development of the Mary River Mining operation in Milne Inlet outside Pond Inlet and the potential impacts to narwhal migration and distribution. Town Mayor Charlie Inuarak met with then-Prime Minister Stephen Harper in 2014 to argue against a five-year plan to permit seismic testing in Pond Inlet. Hunters are wary and mixed in their opinions of social and economic change that provide stable employment opportunities but impact animal migration, distribution and behavior that affects traditional hunting practices.
All of the hunters interviewed in our study agreed that the current narwhal population numbers are stable, and some even reported increasing numbers, though acknowledge that seasonal variation may be great due to the warming effect on weather patterns and ice distribution that cause changes to narwhal migration routes and seasonal aggregation. Now, more recently, they question the effects of seismic testing and commercial development. These effects of change can have dramatic impacts as narwhal appear off new communities and disappear from other communities as evidenced in Repulse Bay, Nunavut, Canada where narwhal had been harvested for 13 years close to their community and none were observed during the summer of 2006. The Inughuit of Siorapaluk, in Northwestern Greenland have observed the narwhal population dramatically increase due to the effects of global warming that creates additional ice melt in Smith Sound permitting a separate stock of narwhal not normally hunted to be harvested.
The subject of hunting quotas and sustainable narwhal populations is clear for most hunters. Funded by this investigation, hunter Pavia Nielsen, from Uummannaq, presented findings from the knowledge he collected among his peers and elders at the Inuit Circumpolar Council in Barrow (Utqiagvik) in 2007 (original statement in Greenlandic):
"After the strict restrictions of narwhals and belugas, it is hard for us to get healthy nutrition in the fall. We lost a lot! Even though we know and can see whales with our own eyes are multiplying. Our eyes won’t lie to us. When we are watching a lot of whales we have a saying between us hunters, “And they say they are a dying breed”. This is not true!
Last fall in 2005, November 20th, it was a very fine weather. For the first time in history so many narwhals were spotted in Uummannaq fjord. And the same day in Disko the hunters were catching a good amount of narwhals too. And the very same day in Aasiaat they were catching a lot of whales as well. Any animal that is in danger of extermination cannot be everywhere along the coast within a lot of kilometers. If they are in danger of extermination, they wouldn’t be so many in different places in one day.
Every hunter I know is speaking the same as me. Please believe us, we are not talking falsehoods. You must rethink the restriction. We ask ICC to tell the world that the whales are not in danger. We ask them to discuss that Inuit hunters know their catch above all. And what we say is true. Believe my words. Maybe you will first believe me when I am dead.”
Three years after his presentation, Pavia Nielsen and the hunters from Greenland were finally heard and proven right in their assessment of the stable and sustainable narwhal populations as was reported in biological surveys (Heide-Jørgensen et al., 2010). This view was later confirmed by a joint agreement issued by the North Atlantic Marine Commission Scientific Committee and the Joint Commission on the Conservation and Management of Narwhal and Beluga in 2012. It demonstrates that the Inuit Knowledge about narwhal population enters the knowledge pool weighed against conflicting results from scientific studies and it rarely passes through to scientists’ interpretation filters. It was, largely ignored by scientific organizations and game management agencies, until 2010 when scientific studies proved that the Inuit observations were correct and the IK was finally confirmed by science.
Scientific Data on Narwhal Population and Migration
Narwhal population estimates in biological literature have been highly variable. Most recent surveys cite a population total of 14,485 from the Northern Hudson Bay (Asselin et al., 2012), a Canadian Baffin Bay population total of 141,909 (Doniol-Valcroze, 2013), and populations from Greenland (including Eastern Greenland) of 6,444 and from Western Greenland of 14,392 (Heide-Jørgensen, 2010) total 175,230. The estimated total number of narwhal in the Arctic in 2010 was approximately 80,000, with possible variation between 58,000 and 86,000 (Richard et al., 2010). Many factors influence the accuracy of scientific population estimates, including ice in the inlets, open areas of pack ice, weather conditions prohibiting continuous surveys, population mixing or philopatry (animals returning to the same area), and formulations used to extrapolate total numbers from surface counts, since narwhal migrate in groups along different water layers. Population estimates have actually risen over time (Doniol-Valcroze, 2013; Richards, 1998; Innes et al., 2002; Hrynyshyn, 2004), and corrected narwhal populations were updated since the late 1990s and early 2000s. For example, the narwhal population in Admiralty Inlet is currently estimated at 35,000 (Doniol-Valcroze, 2013), as compared to survey estimates of 18,000 just a few years before in 2010 (Asselin and Richard, 2011). New estimates and corrections help validate hunters’ vision reflecting stable and even growing narwhal populations.
Scientists originally reported declining numbers of narwhal as evidenced by North Atlantic Marine Commission reports from surveys completed in the 1990’s (North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission, 2005). These figures eventually translated into decreased narwhal harvest quotas in an effort to ‘control a sustainable stock’ (in biologists’ terms). Lower narwhal populations numbers were also reported as a possible result of overhunting in Western Greenland (Heide-Jørgensen, M. P., 1994; Heide-Jørgensen, M. P. and Aquarone, M., 2002). Other studies reported that the warning signs of species vulnerability be included in population risk due to climate change and availability of prey, thus affecting Inuit and Inughuit hunting quotas set (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen, 2005).
However more recent studies (Heide-Jørgensen et al., 2010) conclude that annual fluctuations and differences in survey methodology were variables more likely contributing to the previously reported population numbers. In 2012, the North Atlantic Marine Commission Scientific Committee and the Joint Commission on the Conservation and Management of Narwhal and Beluga confirmed that narwhal populations in Western Greenland were sustainable (NAMCO Annual Report, 2012). A study completed in Siorapaluk, the northernmost community in Western Greenland described an increase in narwhal population since 2002, since the effect of global warming has freed ice from Smith Sound. It allowed a separate stock of narwhal to have a broader distribution closer to this community and resulted in an increased harvest (Nielsen, 2009).
Population figures used to set narwhal harvest quotas have also been contested by Inuit groups in Canada. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (the Department in charge of marine mammal quotas and research – Ed.) and the Canadian Government recommended a moratorium on narwhal hunting and even limiting fishing in 2015 which was met with threats of a lawsuit from Nunavut Tunngavik Inc, and the Nunavut Wildlife Management Board. Nunavut Tunngavik and Fisheries and Oceans Canada have been in disagreement about narwhal population numbers since 2010. Scientific studies on narwhal population numbers have mixed results and problems in methodology including difficulties with aerial surveys, weather conditions, and observer bias so that wide variances in reporting are present, according to a study by Richard et al in 2010. More recent assessments of narwhal populations resulting in the current population estimate of 175,230 have more accurate methods of counting, within more defined time frames (Doniol-Valcroze, 2013).
Mass narwhal mortality via ice entrapments
Mass narwhal entrapments have been in historic records since 1915 (Porsild, , 1918), though the number of reported cases was limited due to either the lack of reporting from distant areas or because there have been traditionally less environmental impacts to cause such events. “Sassat” was the original term in Greenlandic used by Porsild to describe the entrapment in Disko Bay. The Canadian Inuit used a different word, sikujjaujut, to describe the situation when new (fast) ice forms quickly due to sudden changes in weather associated with high atmospheric pressure. The relationship between ice and Inuit has been well recorded (e.g. Gearheard et al., 2013; Krupnik et al., 2010), though its relationship to narwhal entrapment and other cetaceans may have new sources related to commercial activity (Westdal et al., 2016).
In just three years, 2008-2010 there have been four documented entrapments –on November 15, 2008 in Pond Inlet, Canada; mid-February 2008 in Southeastern Greenland; November 23, 2009; and February 5, 2010 near Qaanaaq, Greenland. Scientists believe that the growing number of recent entrapments may be directly related to global warming, as the narwhal are increasing the length of time spent at their summer areas and thus are more readily caught in rapid ice formation (Laidre et al., 2012). The effect of seismic testing on narwhal entrapments has been described as causally related with a warning that more research is needed (Miller et al., 1995). Seismic testing may have caused a delay in narwhal migration from summer habitats in the High Arctic to the wintering areas in Hudson Bay, and thus placed narwhal in danger of fast ice formation in the summer off-shore areas (Heide-Jørgensen et al., 2013).
Narwhal Behavior
Inuit observations of narwhal behavior have, and will continue to shape hypotheses of animal biology and ecology, since scientific studies are generally limited in their access to critical areas and in time spent observing the animals during the annual cycle.
Behavioral Observations from Inuit Knowledge
Migration to brackish water inlets has been discussed, (by scientists) with little attention to molting. However, two hunters from Qaanaaq in North Greenland and one from Pond Inlet, Nunavut described the narwhal molting process in great detail. They talked about a gauze-like shedding of skin, so thin that if one is not present at the time it occurs it will rapidly dissipate in the water. This observation may be an important consideration in the overall understanding of reasons for narwhal to migrate to inlet areas with high salinity during the summer months.
According to the comments of 24 Inuit and Inghuit hunters, there is no “mating season” for narwhals. Rather, “they mate like us” was the common response, any time during the course of a year. Interviewed elders and hunters observe young narwhals at all stages of development, indicating that mating is just as likely to take place during the spring and summer months.
During spring migration to the floe edge, and subsequently into the inlets, adult males commonly lead the group, according to the statements of 12 hunters. Older males follow and young ones are often to the sides of the group, described by the hunters as “scouts” or “spies.” The observed difference in dive behavior between males and females has been described as related to tusk expression. According to three elders, females and males with broken tusks arch their body more during a deep dive, and bend more when swimming on the surface. The males with tusks rarely show their tusk above the surface while swimming, and sink below the surface before diving deep. All hunters interviewed observed non-aggressive tusk behavior, with only two isolated stories of aggression after provocation from hunters.
Behavioral Observations from Science
Few scientific studies have documented narwhal behavior. Several factors contribute to the gap in observations , including the difficulty of gaining access to observing sites, and cost and investment of time required. Narwhal often spend more than half of their time underwater during the spring-summer migration, and it is almost impossible to conduct long-term observations of narwhal behavior during wintering pack-ice conditions. Thus scientific observations must be weighed as being limited compared to those acquired by hunters over generations. Biologists’ reports on male narwhals leading the migration (Greendale and Brousseau-Greendale, 1976), variable degrees of sexual segregation (Marcoux et al., 2009), diurnal diving behaviors (Dueck, 1989), and elaborate narwhal ritualistic tusk behavior (Pilleri, 1983) confirm some of the Inuit observations discussed above. In addition, the hunters talk about animal segregation in groups made of males only and females with calves, the fact not yet reported in science literature. Notes taken during observations of six narwhals in captivity (Newman, 1971) in Vancouver Aquarium showed heightened female response to tusk-like objects like a broom handle (Best, 1981).
Narwhal Anatomy and Morphology
Inuit classifications of narwhal
The most general name for narwhal in Inuktitut (Canadian Inuit language) is Qilalugaq Qirniqtaq, which literally means ‘the one that is good at curving itself to the sky’ (Nweeia et al. 2006) The Inuit classify adult narwhal using separate names (terms), based on animals’ gender, skin color, age, and tusk form and growth (?). Descriptions by tusk form expression include: adult narwhal (tiggarr, t[Z - ), female with tusk (arningali, x3izo), female and male (tuugaittuq, gZw5g6), male with shorter and wider tusk (tuugaitun, g]Zwg8), double-tusked same-size tusks (iglugiit, w[l]Q5), and left tusk longer than the right tusk (nikingaj, UT irzJ5). Three common terms based on skin coloration are: male with white color (qakuyuktuq, cfJ4g) and male with black color (qinnijuktuq, eiJ4g6).
A more detailed Inuit classification of narwhal with many more Native terms has been preserved in the original notes of the late Cornelius Nutarak from Mittimatilik (Pond Inlet), Nunavut, Canada, shared by his son Jaykoo Alooloo (see Figs. 3a and 3b). There are two Greenlandic classifications of narwhal based on age and gender: one from the Upernavik area in Northwest Greenland and one from the Thule area (Inughuit dialect), as reported in the notes of Greenland hunters Nikolaj Jensen from Kullorsuaq and Jens Rosing from Thule, respectively (Rosing, 1999; personal communication at home of Jens Rosing, 2006).
Several Inuit from High Arctic communities in Northwestern Greenland claim to recognize and differentiate narwhal populations from Canada and Greenland by their body form and behavior. They describe ‘Canadian’ narwhal as being narrower through the length of their body and more curious and social, while ‘Greenlandic’ narwhal are wider and more bulbous in the anterior two thirds of their body and taper at the tail. Their personalities are shyer, and thus they are more elusive. The description of two phenotypes suggests possible further study of whether these may be two sub-species or isolated regional stocks of narwhal.
Fifteen hunters responded to the question of double-tusked narwhal being male or female as “male.” Initial IK data for this observation had one entry, and contradicted scientific reports of them being “frequently” female or male in different accounts. An example of conflicting metadata cited in the methods was this consistent observation from IK that double-tusked narwhals were male, which contradicted inconsistent scientific findings. One hunter commented that his father had harvested a double-tusked female, which presented a different result. This observation was added as a separate record to be synthesized with the existing scientific findings. This formed a new combined knowledge from IK and science about double-tusked expression, found primarily in males and sometimes females.
Scientific Data on Narwhal Tusk Anatomy
Gross descriptions of narwhal head and tooth anatomy were documented for this work to understand the form and structure of the teeth and their surrounding structures.
Three narwhal head samples, obtained from Canadian (?) Inuit subsistence catch in 2003 and 2005, were examined by computerized axial tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, followed by dissection. They included one adult male and female, and one fetal specimen between four and six months in its development. The narwhal heads were dissected at the Osteo-Prep Laboratory at the Smithsonian Institution, and digital photographs were taken to record anatomical landmarks and features of gross anatomy (Nweeia et al., 2009). Anatomical features revealed: 1) an intra-cranial dissection of the fifth cranial nerve pathway that was consistent with other mammals; 2) the presence of paired vestigial teeth and extended tooth sockets to the base of the maxillary bone, these being connected with the nerve supply of the embedded tusks; and, 3) relative and dynamic position changes of the embedded tusks relative to the vestigial teeth during growth and development. Data from MRI-assisted verification of known cranial anatomy enabled examination of tooth vasculature.
The sex determined for double-tusked narwhal in the scientific literature is both female and male, though more references cite female (Carwardine, 1995). Peter Jensen (1979), in his book published in Greenlandic argued that “some of the females [narwhal] can have teeth -- and in almost all these cases there are two.” This observation was confirmed by Stevens (1978: we need page number for quotation!) in his section on narwhal in a popular guidebook, Alaska Whales and Whaling in which he stated that “On very rare occasions two-tusked narwhals have been caught or seen, frequently female.”
Inuit Observations of Tusk Morphology
Inuit descriptions of tusk morphology include variations of form within each sex, and dimorphic traits that differentiate tusk expression in females. Most hunters note that the blood and nerve supply in the pulp in both species extends to the tip, and indeed some hunters are experienced at the extirpation of the pulp to its entire length. They describe a receding pulpal chamber for older narwhal that is a finding consistent with increased age in most mammals.
Four elders and hunters commented on the physical characteristics of narwhal hard tusk tissue having unusual strength and flexibility, allowing it to bend and arch without breaking. Many reports describe the extreme flexibility of a freshly harvested tusk, which then becomes more rigid as it dries. Because of its unusual characteristics of strength and flexibility, two elders told of a tusk being used to help dislodge an ice sledge trapped in the ice. Two hunters actually described seeing a tusk bending while a narwhal was swimming. One hunter observed a narwhal fleeing from a killer whale, and stated that the whole body corkscrewed after it had reached a rapid speed.
According to hunters, female tusk is quite different in morphology compared to the male one. Female tusks are described as more narrow and tightly spiraled and they appear straighter on a central axis, as their outer spiral is less pronounced than their male counterparts.
In an interview with now-deceased elder Cornelius Nutarak, confirmed by his son Jayko Alooloo (personal communication, March 3, 2013), there are two morphologic variants of the erupted tusk: one longer and associated with a darker-skinned adult, and one shorter and wider associated with the animals with colored spots on the dorsal surface and more white in color on the ventral surface. The latter narwhal type, with shorter wider tusks, was reported as more likely to have broken tips. These narwhal usually migrate north to Grise Fiord in Canada and to East Greenland, according to Nutarak.
Scientific Data on Narwhal Tusk Morphology
Micro-hardness measurements were done on position-resolved sections to determine the tissue hardness and elastic modulus by location (Nweeia et al., 2009). Based on the biomechanical results, a nine-foot tusk was estimated to have characteristics of strength and flexibility sufficient to allow it to bend approximately one foot in all directions without breakage. These studies led to a microstructural analysis of the tusk to help determine its function (Nweeia et al., 2014).
Conclusions
Significant contributions to all areas of inquiry were made in our joint study. Inuit classifications of narwhal anatomy and morphology add to the descriptions and knowledge of body form, skin pattern variation, tusk expression and behavior. Drawings by Cornelius Nutarak give insights to narwhal social structure, the existence of stable groups of four and five animals. Behavioral observations also add to the science of understanding narwhal social and group dynamics, and support the vision of local aggregations of narwhal (such as those illustrated by Cornelius Nutarak) within their summering inlet habitats, possible foraging differences by sex, summer molting in the more brackish intercostal areas, and sensory function of the tusk.
In terms of migration and narwhal population estimates, valuable insight from both science and IK contribute to the complexity of any conclusive insights. Because of this, hunting quotas related to population management should be developed in partnership between science/management (represented by Department of Fisheries and Oceans, in Canada; Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, in Greenland) and subsistence hunters/IK (represented by the Nunavut Wildlife Management Board, Hunters, and Trappers Organizations of participating communities, in Canada; Kalaallit Nunaani Aalisartut Piniartullu Kattuffiat, the Association of Fishermen and Hunters in Greenland).
Due to the difficulty of observing narwhal behavior in the Arctic, the value of even one expert hunter, like Rasmus Avike, reporting the molting of narwhal can provide a wealth of new knowledge that would be unattainable otherwise. Population estimates originally offered by the Inuit and Inughuit experts were eventually found to be stable and sustainable, though originally they were treated with suspicion within the scientific knowledge frame. Results of later narwhal population surveys confirmed the validity of Inuit Knowledge. Thus, partners with the differing frames of knowledge can work together, and combine information to achieve insight and understanding that equally respects and addresses each form of knowledge.
Acknowledgements
Qujanamik to the many hunters and elders who gave their time, knowledge and wisdom to the writings here, and many of whose interviews can be found on the ELOKA website: Mucktar Akumalik, Jayko Alooloo, David Angnatsiak, Pecob Anursen, Tony Aqsarniq, Ragelee Arnaquq, Stevie Audlakiah, Richard Broberg, Alberth Fleischer, Hans Hansen, Jay Icooeelusie, Charley Inurak, Enookie Inuarak, Jens Ole Jensen, Magssanguaq Jensen, Jonas Jensen, Jens Jeremiassen, Lars Jeremiassen, Ikey Kigutikkaakjuk, Kaviqanguak Kissuk, Laurent Kringayark, Lisha Levi, Natascha Mablick, Joanasie Maniapik, Kale Mølgaard, Seetee Natsiapik, Hans Nielsen, Levi Nutaralaaq, Elisapee Ootova, Jayko Peterloosie, Anders Petersen, Peter Petersen, Pavia Petesson, Luky Putulik, Silasee Qappih, Peterloosie Qaapik, Jaypeetee Qarpik, Ole Qvist, Paniloo Sangoya, Isaac Shooyok, James Simonee, Mark Tagoranak, Aqqaluaqluaq Ulrick and the Shoyook family.
Our thanks for the support of this joint study goes to the National Science Foundation Office of Polar Research, National Geographic Society, Explorers Club World Center for Exploration, the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, The Marine Mammal Program, Smithsonian Institution, John Castle, and the Harvard School of Dental Medicine. Thank you to Narwhal Tusk Research Assistants Judith Moran, Katherine Tiisler, Lisa Marie Leclerc and Benjamin Grey.
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Figure 1. Hunters and elders interviewed for this study were selected from High Arctic communities in eastern Nunavut and western Greenland. These communities are indicated by black dots on the map above.
Figures 2a-2d [Photographs/Portraits of hunters participating in this study]
Figures 3a, and 3b, from the notes of Cornelius Nutarak from Pond Inlet, describing narwhal anatomical classifications.
Figure 4. Drawings from the original notes of Cornelius Nutarak, Pond Inlet.
Figure 5. Elders in Hunde Ejland, Disko Island, and Uummannaq also described a change in narwhal migration patterns that started in 2007. The map indicates narwhal migration by month, and the changing patterns that show spring migration occurring approximately two weeks sooner and the late summer-fall migration occurring two weeks later. The change in migration is also noted with differing routes in and around Disko Bay as northern migration passes an inward route into Disko Bay.